Anatomy and Physiology Training

ESSENTIAL TRAINING

Anatomy and Physiology Online

Pathology


ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

SYLLABUS

CONTACT HOURS                           50 hours minimum

 

 

Core Element

Course Component

MinimumContact Hours/

Distance Learning.

Minimum Student

Self-directed Study Hours

Anatomy & Physiology

50*

100

Pathology

15*

50

 

Teachers of Anatomy & Physiology must hold a recognised teaching qualification

All set course work, homework, projects, assignments, theses, etc. must be assessed throughout to ensure the student understands and is familiar with all sections of Anatomy & Physiology and that the student is ready and capable of taking the IFPA Examination

 

 

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

COURSE SYLLABUS

 

AIMS:

 

  • To provide an introduction to the workings of the human body
  • To provide an understanding of the anatomical terms associated with describing the human body
  • To provide an awareness of the chemistry underlying the functioning of the human body
  • To develop an understanding of the organisation of the human body from cells to systems
  • To provide a thorough understanding of the normal physiology of the human body
  • To develop an awareness of what constitutes a deviation from normal functioning
  • To describe signs and symptoms of these deviations
  • To develop an awareness of how the human body responds to stress
  • To provide an understanding of the mechanisms by which repair may be effected

 

 

INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY

 

The student will be able to:

 

Define:            Anatomy, physiology and pathology, metabolism, energy and homeostasis

 

Differentiate:  Acute, chronic, contagion and infection

 

Describe:         Anatomical position and directional terms related to it

 

Recognise:       The individual systems of the body, main cavities of the body and organs contained in each

 

Utilise:             Common anatomical and physiological terms

 

Identify:           The principles of pathology in the listed conditions to enable selection and application of appropriate treatment techniques and oils.  Also to recognise conditions which contraindicate treatment, require special care or referral.

 

THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Differentiate between organic and inorganic substances
  • Recognise the main chemical elements in the human body and describe their functions
  • Explain the importance of water to the body
  • Define acid, base and salt
  • Explain how the pH scale relates to acidity and alkalinity
  • Name the major groups of organic compounds found in the body and their building blocks, i.e. carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids
  • Explain the term enzyme and explain how they work

 

 

CELLS

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Explain why a cell is the basic unit of lie in terms of organisations, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, repair and reproduction
  • Describe the structure of a typical human cell and the structure and functions of the following organelles:

cell membrane                       Golgi apparatus

cytoplasm                                endoplasmic reticulum

centrosome                             nucleolus

nucleus                                    ribosome

chromosome                           mitochondria

  • Describe how cells vary according to function
  • Explain briefly the composition, location and functions of DNA and RNA in the cell
  • Describe the processes of mitosis and meiosis
  • Define the terms diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active and passive transport, phagocytosis and pinocytosis in relation to cell membrane
  • Explain how free radicals, glucose and the ageing process affect cells.

 

 

 

 

 

TISSUES

 

TYPE OF TISSUE, LOCATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Define the term tissue and list the four principal types of tissue found in the human body, together with their functions:

 

  1. Epithelial:

simple, stratified & pseudostratified  squamous, cuboidal, columnar

glandular (exocrine/endocrine)                     ciliated

 

  1. Connective

loose & fatty               (aerolar, adipose, reticular)

dense                           (dense regular, dense irregular, elastic)

cartilage                      (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage)

bone

liquid                           (blood & lymph)

 

Describe the relationship of matrix to cells in each group of connective tissue

 

  1. Muscular

skeletal                        voluntary

smooth                        involuntary

cardiac                        striated & non striated

 

  1. Nervous

neurones

neuroglia

 

Explain the process of tissue repair and the conditions affecting it

 

Recognise the importance of homeostatic mechanisms in all systems to maintain normal function.

 

 

 

 

 

 

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Name the constituent parts of the integumentary system and describe their functions:                      

temperature regulation          absorption & excretion

protection                               synthesis of Vitamin D

sensory perception                 immunity

 

  • Label correctly a diagram of the skin, to identify the following:

Epidermis:       Stratum corneum

                        Stratum lucidum

                        Stratum granulosum

                        Stratum spinosum

                                    Stratum basale (germinativum)

 

            Dermis            Papillary region

                                    Reticular region

 

            Subcutaneous layer

 

  • Identify the location and describe the structure and function of the appendages of the skin:

 

Sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair and nails

 

  • Explain the functions of keratin
  • Explain the process of absorption through the skin
  • Define the term erythema
  • Explain how ageing affects the skin
  • Describe the functions of keratin, the process of pigmentation and how the effects of excessive exposure to sunlight may affect the skin
  • Name and describe common disorders / diseases of the skin including:

 

Infections:       Bacterial:        Acne, impetigo

                        Fungal:            Tineas (e.g. Athlete’s foot)

                        Viral:               Herpes simplex, Herpes zoster

                                                Papillomas (e.g. warts)

 

Decubitus ulcers

Pediculosis (lice)

Rubella, varicella, hives

Scabies

Allergies and reactions:

General allergies

Dermatitis

Photosensitivity

Burns

Chronic Skin Conditions:

Eczema

Psoriasis

Scleroderma

Skin cancers

Chronic ulcers

 

 

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Explain the main functions of the skeletal system:

support, protection, movement

mineral storage

production of blood cells

 

  • Classify bones according to location, shape and function
  • Explain the structure and development of bone cells
  • Recognise prominent bony points by surface marking
  • Describe the structure of a typical long bone and label a diagram
  • Name the components and describe the functions of the axial and appendicular skeletons
  • Recognise and name the main facial and cranial bones and sinuses:

Cranial bones: frontal             Sinuses:                ethmoidal sinus

                          parietal                                      frontal sinus          

                                temporal                                    sphenoidal sinus

                                occipital                                     maxillary sinus

                                sphenopid

                                ethmoid

 

Facial bones:  nasal

  zygomatic

                          maxilla & mandible

 

  • Describe the arrangement of the vertebrae in the spinal column: numbers of each vertebrae
  • Describe the normal curvatures of the spine and recognise disorders
  • Name and locate the major bones on the body or on a diagram
  • Describe the effects of ageing on the bone

 

Joints   (Articulations):

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Explain the classification of joints by structure and function
  • Describe the typical synovial joint and explain the functions of its constituent parts
  • Recognise each type of synovial joint and give examples of each:

Plane, hinge, ball & socket, condyloid, saddle, pivot

  • Describe the type of movement at each type of joint
  • Explain “range of movement” and describe the factors which limit movement at joints
  • Describe the effects of ageing on synovial joints
  • Name and describe common disorders / diseases of the skeletal system including:

 

Arthritic conditions:                Osteoarthritis

                                                Rheumatoid arthritis

Ankylosing spondylitis

Reactive spondylitis

Infective spondylitis

Joint replacements

Soft tissue conditions: Bursitis

                                                Tendonitis

                                                Sprains & strains

                                                Synovitis

 

General:                                  Gout

Non-specific back pain

Postural defects, including lordosis, scoliosis and  

  kyphosis

Subluxation (dislocation)

Contractures

Osteoporosis

 

 

THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Describe the structure & functions of the three types of muscle tissue:

Skeletal (striated)

Smooth (nonstriated)

Cardiac

 

  • Describe the gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscle
  • Relate this structure to the process of muscle contraction
  • Define muscle tone, isotonic and isometric contraction, agonist, antagonist
  • Indicate on a model or diagram the principal superficial muscles of the body
  • Identify the points of origin & insertion of the major muscles and their actions
  • Explain muscle fatigue
  • Explain the structure and functions of tendons and ligaments
  • Name  and describe common disorders / diseases of the muscular system including:

Local:   Fibrositis                                  General:          Muscle wasting diseases, e.g.

Fibromyalgia                                                   Myasthenia gravis

Repetitive strain injury                                   Muscular dystrophy

Carpel tunnel syndrome                                 Chronic fatigue syndrome (ME)

Ganglion cysts                                     Peripheral neuropathies

Dupuytren’s contracture                                 e.g. diabetes, drug induced

 

 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Explain how the nervous system acts as one of the body’s control systems
  • Describe the structure and functions of neurones and glial cells
  • Label a diagram of a typical motor neurone
  • Define the terms sensory, motor, afferent, efferent, mixed and tracts in relation to the nervous system
  • Define the terms reception, transmission, integration and response in relation to the nervous system
  • Define a synapse and explain its role in relation to the transmission of a nerve impulse

 

 

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Summarise the function and organisation of the central nervous system
  • Describe the protection of the brain and spinal cord (meninges and CSF)
  • Outline the structure and main functions of the brain
  • Indicate the location and explain the functions of the principal parts of the brain(brain       stem: medulla, pons & mid brain, cerebellum, cerebrum, cerebral cortex)
  • Name the major structures comprising the Limbic System and describe their functions:

Hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, fornix, cingulated gyrus

  • Describe briefly the process of sensory reception and sensory adaptation
  • Describe the gross structure and functions of the spinal cord:
  • Describe a reflex arc

 

 

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Identify the following cranial & somatic peripheral nerves in relation to their function, location and type:

Cranial:           facial                           Somatic:          brachial

  • olfactory                                              sciatic & branches

trigeminal                                           obturator

vagus

accessory

 

  • Explain the arrangement of plexuses & ganglia
  • Explain the importance and relevance of dermatomes

 

 

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Outline the structure of the component parts of the autonomic nervous system
  • Compare and contrast the functions of the sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous system, explaining the physiological effects of each
  • Briefly describe the integration and control of autonomic functions

 

 

THE SPECIAL SENSES

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Explain the process of sensory reception
  • Describe the five types of receptor and the types of energy they detect:

Chemoreceptors:                    odours, tastes, body fluid composition

Thermoreceptors:                   heat & cold

Nociceptors:                            pain, heat & chemicals

Mechanoreceptors:                touch, pressure

Photoreceptors:                      light

 

  • Describe the structure and functions of the special senses: hearing, sight, taste, touch and smell
  • Describe the process of olfaction to include the component structures, their functions and the pathways and mechanisms by which odours are thought to be perceived
  • Explain how adaptation affects the sense of smell
  • Explain the relationship of the sense of smell to emotions and memory
  • Name and describe common disorders / diseases of the nervous system, including:

 

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Transient ischaemic attack (TIA)

Sciatica

Multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis

Cerebrovascular accident (stroke)

Poliomyelitis

Epilepsy

Bell’s Palsy

Cerebral palsy

Trigeminal neuralgia

Alzheimers

Herpes zoster

Meningitis

 

Migraine

Psychological

Parkinsons

Post natal depression

Spincal cord injury

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

Motor neurone disease

Clinical depression

 

Differentiate between upper & lower motor neurone lesions

 

Sensory disorders

Olfactory disorders, i.e. anosmia

Taste alterations, i.e. mouth ulcers

Visual disturbances, i.e. cataracts, glaucoma, conjunctivitis

Auditory disturbances, i.e. deafness, tinnitus, vertigo, otitis media

 

 

THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Describe briefly the functions of the endocrine system in relation to homeostasis
  • Distinguish between endocrine and exocrine glands
  • Define the term hormone and list the functions of hormones
  • Identify and locate on a diagram the principal endocrine glands and list the hormones produced by them, their functions and target organs
  • Describe the four principles classes of hormones
  • Explain the terms ‘negative and positive feedback’ in relation to the release of hormones
  • Explain the means by which the body controls hormonal levels
  • Explain the function of the hypothalamus in relation to the endocrine system
  • Identify the hormones secreted by the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland and list their actions
  • Identify those hormones secreted by the thyroid and parathyroid glands and list their actions
  • Explain the roles of insulin and glucagon in the control of blood glucose
  • Describe the role of the adrenal medulla and cortex, the hormones they produce and their effects on the body
  • List the hormonal changes in the male and female during puberty and in the female in breast development and during pregnancy, lactation and menopause
  • List the principle actions of the gonadotropic hormones and ovarian hormones and discuss the feedback mechanisms involved in their regulation
  • Describe briefly the term prostaglandin
  • Explain how stress may affect the endocrine system
  • Name and describe common disorders / diseases of the endocrine system, including:

            Acromegaly                             Hyperthyroidism

Diabetes insipidus                   Graves disease

Hypothyroidism                       Diabetes mellitus (type I & II)

            Addisons Disease                    Cushings syndrome

 

           

 

THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

 

THE BLOOD

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Describe the physical characteristics of whole blood
  • Explain the functions of whole blood
  • Describe the functions and composition of plasma and the cells it contains
  • Compare the differences in structure and function of erythrocytes and leucocytes
  • Describe the mechanism of blood clotting
  • Relate the process of agglutination to blood group and the rhesus factor
  • Explain the importance of iron, Vitamin B12 and folic acid
  • Name and describe common disorders / diseases of the bloods including:

 

Anaemia / Iron deficiency

Haematoma

Leukaemias

Septicaemia

Glandular fever

Deep vein thrombosis and other clotting disorders

THE HEART

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Describe the location, structure and functions of the heart and label a diagram of it
  • Identify the coverings of the heart and describe their functions
  • Describe the events of the cardiac cycle
  • Describe the control of blood pressure
  • Describe briefly the conducting system of the heart
  • Define systole and diastole and their relationship to blood pressure
  • Describe the cardiac / coronary circulation
  • Name and describe common diseases / disorders of the heart, including:

 

Valve disorders: rheumatic fever, congenital defects

Arrhythmia:     ventricular fibrillation

                        atrial flutter

Congestive heart failure

Cardiomyopathy

Endocarditis

Atherosclerosis

Myocardial infarction

Coronary artery disease

Ischaemic heart disease

 

 

 

 

BLOOD VESSELS

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Label a diagram of the principal arteries & veins of the body
  • Compare the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins and label a cross-section of each
  • Explain the significance of vasoconstriction and dilation
  • Explain the function of valves in major veins
  • Define systolic and diastolic blood pressure
  • Identify the factors governing blood pressure
  • Describe the exchange of gases and nutrients at capillaries within the tissues
  • Describe the pulmonary, hepatic, portal and systemic circulations
  • Explain the effects of exercise, eating, heat, cold and stress on blood flow
  • Name & briefly describe common disorders / diseases of the blood vessels, including:

 

Arterial                                    Venous

Hypotension                            Phlebitis

Hypertension                           Haemorrhoids

Arteriosclerosis                       Varicose Veins

CVA (stroke)                            Thrombosis

Raynauds syndrome

Intermittent claudication

 

 

 

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Describe the functions of the lymphatic system
  • Identify the main structures of the lymphatic system (tonsils, thymus, lymph nodes and vessels)
  • Describe the structure of a lymph capillary and its relation to the blood capillaries
  • Explain the formation of lymph and the mechanisms responsible for lymph flow
  • Explain the composition, circulation and functions of  lymph
  • Locate the major groups of lymph nodes and lymphatic tissue throughout the body and describe their structure
  • Describe the structure of a lymph node
  • Describe the role of the lymphatic system in the inflammatory process
  • Explain the role of the lymphatic system in fighting infection
  • Name and describe common disorders / diseases of the lymphatic system including:

Oedema                                  Enlarged Lymph Nodes

Hodgkin’s disease                   Non-Hodgkin’s lymphatic Disease

Lymphoedema                        Tonsilitis

 

 

 

THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Distinguish between specific immunity and non-specific defence mechanisms
  • Identify non-specific defence mechanisms such as skin, stomach acid, respiratory passageways and explain how they protect against infection
  • Relate the physiological changes and clinical symptoms associated with inflammation to its role in the defence of the body
  • Describe the process of phagocytosis
  • Compare the types of T and B lymphocytes with respect to life cycle and function and identify other cells such as macrophages, that function in immune responses
  • Define the terms antigen and antibody and describe how antigens stimulate the immune response
  • Describe the mechanisms of antibody-mediated immunity
  • Describe the mechanisms of cell-mediated immunity, including the development of memory cells
  • Define and differentiate between active and passive immunity
  • Define and differentiate between naturally and artificially acquired immunity
  • Describe the allergic response both local and general
  • Differentiate between the allergic response and sensitivity
  • Name & describe common disorders / diseases of the immune system, including:

Allergies

Auto-immune diseases                       e.g. ankylosing spondilitis, colitis, psoriasis, SLE, RA, Graves

Immunodeficiency diseases    e.g. Aids

Immunosuppression                            e.g. after organ transplant

Chronic fatigue syndrome

 

 

 

THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Identify the major structures of the respiratory system, their relative positions and the functions of each:

Nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, epiglottis, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleura

  • Describe the structure and function of the lungs
  • Define and differentiate between pulmonary ventilation, external respiration and internal respiration
  • Describe the mechanisms and regulation of breathing, including internal and external respiration, inspiration, expiration and exchange of gases
  • Recognise and describe the ways in which oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood
  • Name & describe common disorders / disease of the Respiratory system, including:

 

Acute                                                   Chronic

Tuberculosis                                        Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Pleurisy                                               Asthma

Bronchitis                                            Lung Cancer

Pneumonia                                          Emphysema

Seasonal rhinitis (hayfever)                Rhinitis

Sinusitis

Common cold

Influenza

Laryngitis

 

 

 


 

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Identify the component parts of the digestive system, including the accessory organs of digestion
  • Name the two main functions of the digestive system
  • Explain the processes of ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination
  • Describe the functions of each part  of the digestive system, including the accessory organs
  • Define peristalsis and explain its importance in digestion
  • List the gastric secretions, points of origin and explain their role in digestion
  • Explain the general role of enzymes in digestion
  • Describe the structure of the small intestine and relate this to its role in the digestion and absorption of carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
  • Describe the regulation of pancreatic and hepatic secretions into the duodenum
  • Describe the structure of the large intestine and relate this to its role in absorption, motility and defaecation
  • Name and describe common disorders / diseases of the digestive system:

 

Conditions of tract or organs              Other associated conditions

Gingivitis                                                         Anorexia Nervosa

Oesophogeal reflux                                        Bulimia

Gastric and duodenal ulcers                           Obesity

Stomach cancer                                              Malnutrition

Ulcerative colitis                                                                    

Hiatus hernia

Irritable bowel syndrome

Cirrhosis

Hepatitis – A, B, C, D, E

Diverticulitis

Jaundice

Crohn’s Disease

Biliary calculi (gallstones)

Colorectal cancer

Coeliac disease

Diarrhoea & constipation

 

 


 

THE URINARY SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Identify on a diagram the major structures of the urinary system
  • Explain the functions of each of the structures of the urinary system
  • Describe the gross and microscopic structure of the kidney and its function
  • Identify the structures and relate these to the functions of a nephron
  • Describe briefly renal blood flow
  • Explain the importance of antidiuretic hormone, rennin and erythropoietin
  • List the constituents of normal urine
  • Discuss the micturition reflex and explain the voluntary role of voiding
  • Describe the function and importance of water and electrolyte balance to the body
  • Recognise implications for the patient after renal transplant, i.e. fluid intake
  • Name & describe common disorders / diseases of the urinary system:

 

Inflammatory disorders          e.g. urinary tract infections, cystitis, pyelonephritis

Renal calculi (kidney stones)

Effects of poor and ineffective elimination

Renal colic, insufficiency, failure

Acute glomerulonephritis

Urinary incontinence

 

 

 

THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Name and locate on diagrams the male and female reproductive organs, describe their structure and their functions

 

Male:               penis, urethra, scrotum, testicles, vas deferens, epididymis, prostate

seminal vesicles, bulbo-urethral glands

Female:           structure & function of external and internal genitalia

                        (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, vulva, perineum)

 

  • Describe briefly the menstrual cycle from menarche to menopause and the hormones that control these processes
  • Describe the functions of the male and female sex hormones
  • Describe the stages of pregnancy from fertilisation to birth
  • Describe the process of spermatogenesis and the passage of sperm from testicle to penis
  • Name & describe common disorders / diseases of the reproductive system, including:

 

Sexually transmitted diseases - gonorrhoea, syphilis, non-specific urethritis (NSU),

            Chlamydia, genital herpes, HIV, pelvic inflammatory disease

 

Male: Prostate hyperplasia, testicular & other cancers, infertility, impotence

 

 

Female:

Endometriosis, infertility, premenstrual tension

Dysmenorrhoea, amenorrhoea, post-natal depression

Pre-eclampsia, ectopic pregnancy

Breast, ovarian and cervical cancers

Fibroids

Ovarian cysts

Candida albicans & vaginitis

 

 

STRESS

 

The Student will be able to:

 

  • Describe typical stressors
  • Describe the physiology of the stress response
  • Explain how the body systems are affected by excessive stress
  • Describe the three stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS):

 

Flight / flight response

Resistance reaction

Exhaustion

 

  • Explain the physical and psychological conditions, which may be stress related.

 

 

 

 

SUGGESTED READING:

 

Blandine CJ. (1993)

Anatomy of Movement Eastland Press

 

Blakey P. (2008)

The Muscle Book Himalayan Institute Press

 

Bowden B & J. (2002)

An Illustrated Atlas of the Skeletal Muscles Morton Publishing, USA

 

Crawley JL & Kent M.(2002)

A Photographic Atlas of Anatomy and Physiology Morton Publishing, USA

 

Kapit W & Elson. (1993)

Anatomy Colouring Book 2nd Edition, Harper Collins

 

Kapit W, Macey RI & Meisami E. (1987)

 

Physiology Colouring Book Harper Collins

Marieb EN. (1997)

Anatomy & Physiology: Colouring Workbook & Study Guide Benjamin Cummings

 

Marieb E & Hoehn K, (2010)

Human Anatomy and Physiology with Interactive 10 system suite. Oxford. Pearson Education

Memler RL, Cohen BJ & Wood DL. (1996)

 

The Human Body in Health and Disease Lippincott

 

Mera SL. (1997)

Understanding Disease Stanley Thornes

 

Saladin KS. (2001)

Anatomy & Physiology: The unit form and function Mc Graw-Hill

 

Stone R & J. (1990)

Atlas of the Skeletal Muscles Brown

 

Thibodeau GA & Patton KT. (2002)

The Human Body in Health and Disease 3rd Edition Mosby

 

Thompson K. (1996)

The Movement Book Bibliothek Books

 

Tortora GJ & Grabowski GR. (2001)

Introduction to the Human Body: The Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology 5th Edition John Wiley

 

Werner R & Benjamin B. (1998)

A Massage Therapist’s Guide to Pathology Williams & Wilkins

 

 

The Concise Oxford Medical Dictionary Oxford University Press